tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-21128072.post1399837469700990691..comments2023-10-30T03:41:19.956-07:00Comments on Islam Exposed:The Truth Behind the Veil: the concept of Polictical IslamShofarhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17531653846293622679noreply@blogger.comBlogger2125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-21128072.post-35294800971835962722007-08-28T23:24:00.000-07:002007-08-28T23:24:00.000-07:00Amazing post! The more people that discuss the tr...Amazing post! The more people that discuss the truths of Islam and Islamic Jihad, the more the Jihadis <BR/>will be put in their place. The rule of law must apply, the US isn't letting Muslim gangs run around raping schoolgirls.<BR/><BR/>If they ever try that stuff over here, I'm sure the cops will crack down hard. <BR/>This is what is happening less and less in Europe. And that is just like spoiling little kids rotten. <BR/>If the law continues not to clamp down and enforce law regarding violence it will just get worse and worse.<BR/><BR/>Wafa Sultan and Robert Spencer are heroes! Islam as practiced by the Islamofascists will never be peace because if <BR/>Earth ever became ruled by Sharia Law all the multitudes of Islamic factions that hate each other would keep fighting each other forever.<BR/><BR/>Educate ourselves and others!<BR/><BR/><A HREF="http://www.thereligionofpeace.com" REL="nofollow">The Religion of Peace</A><BR/><BR/><A HREF="http://www.prophetofdoom.net/" REL="nofollow">Prophet of Doom</A><BR/><BR/><A HREF="http://www.brusselsjournal.com/" REL="nofollow">The Brussels Journal</A><BR/><BR/><A HREF="http://jihadwatch.org" REL="nofollow">Jihad Watch</A><BR/><BR/><A HREF="http://gatesofvienna.blogspot.com" REL="nofollow">Gates of Vienna</A><BR/><BR/><A HREF="http://absurdthoughtsaboutgod.blogspot.com" REL="nofollow">Hard To Swallow</A><BR/><BR/>absurd thought -<BR/>God of the Universe thinks<BR/>ALL religions are GREAT<BR/><BR/>none are better than others<BR/>don't believe terrorists' threats<BR/><BR/><BR/>absurd thought -<BR/>God of the Universe says<BR/>threaten writers of books<BR/><BR/>telling the painful truths<BR/>hateful ideologies<BR/><BR/><BR/>absurd thought -<BR/>God of the Universe says<BR/>you may not defend yourself<BR/><BR/>never defend your culture<BR/>if it is Western and white<BR/><BR/><BR/><A HREF="http://absurdthoughtsaboutgod.blogspot.com/2007/08/robert-spencers-book-religion-of-peace.html" REL="nofollow">Robert Spencer Gets Peaceful Death Threats</A><BR/><BR/><A HREF="http://absurdthoughtsaboutgod.blogspot.com/2007/03/do-american-liberals-want-taliban_06.html" REL="nofollow">Do American Liberals Want a Taliban Europe?</A><BR/>.Anonymousnoreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-21128072.post-80997541767411295902007-02-15T04:09:00.000-08:002007-02-15T04:09:00.000-08:00Islam and Slavery through the Ages: Slave Sultans ...Islam and Slavery through the Ages: Slave Sultans and Slave Mujahids<BR/><BR/>By Afroz, Sultana (Lecturer in History at the University of the West Indies, Mona Campus, Jamaica. She completed her doctoral degree in American History with a specialization in US Foreign Policy in South Asia. She is the co-author of The Political Economy of Food and Agriculture in the Caribbean, and is working on a manuscript entitled Invisible Yet Invincible: The Histoiy of the Muslim Umma in Jamaica.)<BR/><BR/>(Read also The Jihad of 1831–1832: The Misunderstood Baptist Rebellion in Jamaica )<BR/><BR/>Source: Islamic L. & Culture 97 (2000)<BR/><BR/>INTRODUCTION<BR/><BR/>Slavery is reprobated by the Islamic principles of liberty,<BR/>equality and universal brotherhood and discountenanced by the<BR/>Islamic code. Yet, the absence of an explicit Qur’anic command<BR/>prohibiting slavery and the existence of slavery in Islamic societies<BR/>have created a paradoxical situation often exploited by the rival<BR/>creeds. That Islam accepted slavery as only a transitional<BR/>institution between war and eventual peace in view of political and<BR/>socio-economic constraints, rather than being prescribed, reveals<BR/>the falseness of the aspersions of the non-Muslims. Prophet<BR/>Muhammad (SAW) compared equality and brotherhood in Islam<BR/>`with “the teeth of a comb”. There is neither lineage nor castes in<BR/>Islam: La Bedawi Fil Islam - there is no Bedouinism in Islam. No<BR/>man can be possessed by another. He is Allah’s creation and thus<BR/>requires submission to the Will of Allah and obedience to His<BR/>Law.<BR/><BR/>This article attempts to examine the position of slavery in<BR/>Islam as ordained by the Holy Qur’an and Sunnah, the traditions of<BR/>the Prophet Muhammad (SAW). Muslim Slave dynasties ruling in<BR/>Egypt and India have been studied to ascertain the enlightened<BR/>nature of slavery in Islamic societies. Jihad (struggles or holy<BR/>wars) carried out by Muslims who became victims of the Atlantic<BR/>slave trade with particular reference to Jamaica, Haiti and Brazil<BR/>underscores the objective of the Islamic faith to establish human<BR/>dignity.<BR/><BR/>HISTORICAL OVERVIEW AND THE ADVENT OF ISLAM<BR/><BR/>The practice of slavery can be historically traced in every age<BR/>and in every nation. The Jews, the Greeks and the Romans all<BR/>recognized and practiced praedial servitude as well as household<BR/>slavery. Despite all the barbaric acts committed on the slaves in<BR/>ancient times, the Code of Hammurabi dealing with slavery<BR/>appears enlightened compared with the other slave systems. Of all<BR/>the slave institutions, the slavocracy of the Americas is considered<BR/>to be the worst and grossest that humanity has witnessed.<BR/><BR/>Slavery was prevalent throughout the world as an<BR/>acknowledged fact of socio-economic existence at the time when<BR/>Islam was revealed in the seventh century. Judaism enjoined<BR/>slavery, and Christianity was silent about it. The advent of Islam<BR/>initiated the restoration of human dignity to mankind and gave a<BR/>deathblow to the perpetual serfdom of the slaves and to the<BR/>institution of slavery as a source of economic labor. Slavery by<BR/>purchase and sale was discountenanced. “Ye proceed one from<BR/>another” serves as Allah’s repeated reminder to mankind that<BR/>everyone is of the same human status. The greatness of the<BR/>Islamic faith can be understood from the emotional words of a <BR/>former member of the racist American white supremacist group<BR/>Ku Klux Klan (KKK) who has accepted Islam: “Allah created<BR/>Islam with a purity that could not be rivaled.” Furthermore, Islam<BR/>recognizes a common descent, abode as well as return for all men,<BR/>master and slave alike. “You are all sons of Adam and Adam was<BR/>created from dust.” Thus, with the advent of Islam, the status and<BR/>position of slaves changed marvelously and no distinction was<BR/>held between a slave and a free man in matters secular or religious,<BR/>and honor was placed on piety for all classes of people.<BR/><BR/>Islam, however, allowed both polygamy and slavery because of<BR/>societal necessities but laid down strict restrictions pertaining to<BR/>inequities, injustices and oppression. Arising out of the exigencies<BR/>during jihad (holy wars), the practices of slavery and polygamy<BR/>became permissible in Islam with a view to enhancing the growth<BR/>and development of the Muslim ummah (community) while<BR/>ensuring the political, economic and social security of the<BR/>community. While polygamy was restrained by limiting the<BR/>maximum number of contemporaneous marriages, and by making<BR/>absolute equity towards all obligatory on the man, the institution of<BR/>slavery was destined to become extinct through a gradual process<BR/>because of the Islamic message of peace, of universalism, of<BR/>brotherhood, of the unity of human beings and its virtues of<BR/>courage, generosity, cleanliness, righteousness and piety. Islam<BR/>urged the emancipation of slaves, as a mandatory obligation or as a<BR/>recommended action. The unity of humanity, emphasized even in<BR/>the Prophet’s farewell address last pilgrimage “Allah has made<BR/>you brethren one to another, so be not divided. An Arab has no<BR/>preference over a non-Arab, nor a non-Arab over an Arab; nor is a<BR/>white one to be preferred to a dark one, nor a dark one to a white<BR/>one…” left no room for slavery or bondage, nor for racism. Islam<BR/>is the sworn enemy of racism, which became the basis of the<BR/>Atlantic slave trade.<BR/><BR/>Islam’s prescription of gradual elimination of slavery rather<BR/>than immediate abolition is best explained by Hazrat Bilal Thn<BR/>Rabah, a former slave of Abbyssinian origin who was appointed<BR/>the first muezzin (person who chants the call to prayer at the<BR/>appointed time for prayer) in Islam by Prophet Muhammad<BR/>(SAW):<BR/><BR/> Islam, apparently, intended to see all slaves freed, but did<BR/> not make it an immediate and unconditional duty<BR/> incumbent upon all masters as this would hurt all parties.<BR/> The world is now (7th century) based on the labor of the<BR/> slaves. Should Islam or any other system have sought to<BR/> stop the, institution of slavery all at once it would lead to<BR/> universal anarchy and disturbances in which both masters<BR/> and slaves would suffer. The masters’ loss is clear. As for<BR/> the slaves, they would find themselves without anyone to<BR/> take care of their needs. Unaccustomed to independence<BR/> and self-reliance, they would in most of the cases seek to<BR/> satisfy their needs through criminal assaults and<BR/> exhortations. Crimes of all sorts would spread widely;<BR/> society would suffer incurably and there would be no more<BR/> peace or secunty.<BR/><BR/>SLAVE WOMEN AND POLYGAMY<BR/><BR/>The masters were permitted and encouraged to many the<BR/>slave-girls they had in their possession: “Let them many from the<BR/>believing maids whom your right hand possess. Allah knoweth<BR/>best (concerning) your faith. Ye (proceed) one from another; so<BR/>wed them by permission of their folk, and give unto them their<BR/>portion in kindness” (4:25). Polygamy in Islam is thus sanctioned<BR/>to extend protection to the widowed slaves and orphaned girls who<BR/>come under the care of guardians during war-time, with a view to<BR/>preventing social ills. For the sound functioning of the family,<BR/>marriage became conditional upon the consent of the slave woman,<BR/>an extension of a portion of the man’s wealth (mahr or dower) to<BR/>the woman, the number of contemporaneous wives limited to four,<BR/>and equitable justice to all the wives made obligatory on the part of<BR/>the man.<BR/><BR/>Prophet Muhammad (SAW) married Maria, the Christian<BR/>Coptic slave girl sent to him by the head of the Coptic Church in<BR/>Cairo. Not only did he give her respect and restore her human<BR/>dignity but he also took her as his own, exemplifying the highest<BR/>respect Islam endows to women. Maria al-Qibtiya (May Allah be<BR/>pleased with her) gained the same title of respect as the Prophet’s<BR/>wives, Umm al-Mu `minuni Mother of the Believers.<BR/><BR/>THE INSTITUTION OF MUKATABAH<BR/><BR/> Voluntary emancipation by the masters was complemented by<BR/>the institution of Mulcatabah, whereby if masters were asked to<BR/>write down terms of freedom by the slaves, they were to yield to<BR/>them in return for a certain amount of money agreed upon by both<BR/>of them. The Holy Qur’an says: “And as for those who ask for a<BR/>writing from among those whom your right hands possessed, give<BR/>them the writing” (24:33). The master could in such a case neither<BR/>refuse nor delay the freeing of a slave. He was required to set the<BR/>slave free on receiving the ransom. Otherwise the slave could<BR/>move the court to decree his enfranchisement.<BR/><BR/>The institution of Mukatabah paved the way for the freedom of<BR/>all those slaves who desired their freedom and did not need to wait<BR/>on their master’s good will or piety. The Islamic Government<BR/>became responsible for their freedom and guaranteed that the slave<BR/>would henceforth work for his master in return for a fixed<BR/>payment, or would make arrangements for him to work outside for<BR/>anyone else on hire until the time he is able to collect the money<BR/>needed to buy his freedom. The Public Exchequer often bought the<BR/>freedom of the slaves directly or advanced loans to slaves seeking<BR/>to purchase their own freedom.<BR/><BR/>Often alms were collected as far as from Africa for buying the<BR/>freedom of slaves. The wealth derived from Az-Zakat (poor rate),<BR/>which is an obligatory annual tax of 2.5 per cent assessed on a<BR/>person’s total residual wealth, also formed a source to buy freedom<BR/>for slaves who were unable to work out their own liberty with the<BR/>help of their personal earnings. The Qur’anic verse (9:10)<BR/>describing the use of Az-Zakat says: “Alms are only for the poor<BR/>and the needy, and the officials (appointed) over them… and the<BR/>ransoming of captives”(9: 60).<BR/><BR/>The principles of Islam and the policies and actions taken by<BR/>the Islamic Government under the Prophet’s leadership to free<BR/>slaves practically put an end to slavery in the Arabian peninsula<BR/>and helped create an almost perfect equality in society. The source<BR/>that prevented the total effacement of slavery and the<BR/>establishment of a just society based on a written constitution - the<BR/>Constitution of Medina, was war. Wars remained a source of<BR/>slavery because of prisoners of war. Captives who could not be set<BR/>free for war crimes became slaves and were put to service, often in<BR/>households until occasion arose for their manumission.<BR/><BR/>In restoring the human status and dignity of slaves in society,<BR/>the Holy Prophet went far beyond enunciating the Qur’anic<BR/>principles of equality and fair treatment, and has left behind some<BR/>admirable traditions. He established a brotherhood between some<BR/>Arab chiefs and some freed slaves. Thus, he joined Bilal Ibn<BR/>Rabab, an ex-slave and Khalid, son of Ru-waihata Al Khas’ami;<BR/>Zayd, the freed slave of the Prophet and Hamza, the uncle of the<BR/>Prophet; and Kharijah son of Zayd and Abu Bakr. This relationship<BR/>of brotherhood was a real bond akin to blood relationship. The two<BR/>persons thus made brothers inherited from each other just as only<BR/>blood relations are entitled.<BR/><BR/>For a better social identity, Prophet Muhammad (SAW)<BR/>encouraged marriage between freed slaves and well-established<BR/>citizens /aristocrats/nobles. The Prophet showed the way when he<BR/>married his cousin Zainab, daughter of Jahsh, to his ex-slave and<BR/>adopted son Zayd, paving the way for freed slaves to have<BR/>matrimonial relationship with the noble/aristocratic families of the<BR/>state - Qureishite. Zayd’s marriage set a precedent that<BR/>matrimonial ties in Islam were not to be dictated by the socio-<BR/>economic background of the families.<BR/><BR/>Slaves were exalted to the position of military commanders and<BR/>leaders. When the Holy Prophet sent an army, which consisted of<BR/>his very close companions, the acknowledged leaders of the Arabs,<BR/>he entrusted Zayd with the generalship of the army. After the death<BR/>of Zayd, the Holy Prophet appointed his son, Osma as the<BR/>commander of the army consisting of such illustrious men as Abu<BR/>Bakr and Omar, his two principal ministers and afterwards<BR/>successors (caliphs). Thus, slaves were given not only a status<BR/>equal and similar to others but were also raised to exalted positions<BR/>of heading the armies of free men. The Prophet commanded the<BR/>believers: “Hear and obey (the orders of your leaders) although the<BR/>man appointed above you as your leader be a Negro slave with a<BR/>raisin-like head as long as he continues to enforce among you<BR/>God’s law”. Thus even a slave could aspire to the highest office<BR/>in the Islamic State. Righteousness and appropriate skills,<BR/>apparently, were the basis of appointments.<BR/><BR/>Bilal Ibn Rabah, a former slave of Umayyah Ibn Khalaf the<BR/>leader of the powerthi Makkan tribe of Jumah, was one of the<BR/>earliest and best known disciples of the Prophet (SAW), whose<BR/>name shines among the highest ranks of historic Muslim notables.<BR/>He rose through his faith to the highest degree of honor and<BR/>distinction as the first muezzin in Islam, despite his previous social<BR/>condition. With his rich, deep and resonant voice, Bilal called the<BR/>adhan, five times a day, until the death of the Prophet (SAW),<BR/>summoning the believers to come to prayer, praising Allah,<BR/>bearing witness to His Unity and acknowledging the legitimacy of<BR/>the Prophet.<BR/><BR/>SLAVE DYNASTY: THE RULE OF THE RIGHTEOUS<BR/><BR/>Slaves raised by Muslim rulers and Sultans were not only<BR/>given their human dignity and status in society, but eventually<BR/>became rulers themselves establishing ruling dynasties in Egypt<BR/>and in India. Thoroughly drilled in Islamic jurisprudence and<BR/>disciplined to follow the Islamic code of life in accordance with<BR/>the Holy Qur’an and Sunnah, they established the rule of<BR/>righteousness, acknowledging the leadership of the most righteous and most<BR/><BR/>efficient administrator, in sharp contrast to the unislamic hereditary, dynastic rule.<BR/><BR/>A. The Mamlukes<BR/><BR/>A community of purchased bondsmen, maintained and<BR/>multiplied by a continuous stream of slaves bought, like<BR/>themselves and by themselves, from Asiatic salesmen was the<BR/>Maniluke dynasty in Egypt. They had established an exceptional<BR/>position and long dominion, seizing power from the Ayyubids in<BR/>1260 and capitulating to the Ottoman Sultan Selim in 1517. The<BR/>rule of the Mamlukes - the slave of today and the sovereign of<BR/>tomorrow - is unparalleled in the history of the world. The entire<BR/>governing body of the same slavish race, holding good for two<BR/>centuries and a half; illustrates the incredible qualities of the<BR/>Manilukes and system which they adhered to. The system<BR/>developed a pattern of succession, which enabled several gifted<BR/>leaders to rise to the top and stay there.<BR/><BR/>The origin of the Marniukes, meaning “owned men” goes back<BR/>to the days of the Salah al-Din (1 138-93), “rectitude of the faith,”<BR/>who adopted the practice of the Abbasids of importing Turkish<BR/>boys from central Asia and training them to be soldiers. Salah al-<BR/>Din’s Muslim chivalry displayed in capturing Jerusalem in 1187<BR/>was never overshadowed by the heroic Islamic virtues of courage,<BR/>generosity and piety and his affection among his followers - the<BR/>Mamlukes, who proved to be the most loyal of all.3o These<BR/>Manilukes, who became the largest element `within the Ayyubid<BR/>(descendents of Salah al-Din) armies, carried the banner of Islam<BR/>against the Seventh Crusade and captured France’s King Louis IX<BR/>and his army in 1250, thus, resonating the glories of Salah al-Din.<BR/><BR/>The first of the Mamlukes, Baybars the Bunduqdari (the holder<BR/>of the gun) was one of the best sovereigns who ever reigned over<BR/>the Muslims. Despite the harsh attitude of John Bagot Glubb,<BR/>towards the Muslims, he writes about Baybars: “We are, indeed,<BR/>forced to admit that he was a giant among men.” Under Baybars,<BR/>Egypt became the richest part of the Muslim world. The name of<BR/>the Manilukes reached every Muslim country with Baybars<BR/>earning the title of “Servant of the Two Holy Cities,” when Mecca<BR/>and Medina accepted Maniluk sovereignty. The dominance of the<BR/>Manilukes over the holy cities continued until 1517 when the<BR/>Ottoman Empire extended its rule over the Arabian Peninsula. The<BR/>political system of the Mamlukes that lasted 250 years was an<BR/>oligarchy of a small group of professional soldiers who were<BR/>ethnically of a race entirely different from the inhabitants. The<BR/>Maniluke system required that the ruling class of every generation<BR/>must come as boys (and sometimes girls) from their original<BR/>homeland, and that their descendants were not eligible to rule.<BR/>Hence, the establishment of the rule of the righteous, in sharp<BR/>contrast to the unislamic hereditary leadership established by<BR/>various Muslim dynasties.<BR/><BR/>To call such boys “slaves” in English is misleading. To many<BR/>poor nomadic families in central Asia, and the eastern shores of the<BR/>Black Sea, Egypt was envisioned as an earthly paradise, its street<BR/>paved with gold and therefore “gladly sold their sons into the<BR/>service of Muslim rulers.M Generally speaking, a boy became a<BR/>Mamluk when he was between ten and twelve, just old enough to<BR/>take care of himself but was doubtless a perfect natural rider. He<BR/>would be sold into the service of the reigning sultan or to one of<BR/>the emirs, and put into a barrack or dormitory with other<BR/>Marnlukes of his age. Besides receiving basic instruction in Islam<BR/>and Arabic, all the boys would be drilled in the care and riding of<BR/>horses, and trained in the use of weapons, which included the bow,<BR/>lance, sword and mace on horseback. During the rigorous training<BR/>period of eight to ten years, the Mamlukes developed a feeling of<BR/>group solidarity that lasted the rest of their lives. Upon completing <BR/>his military training, each maniluke received his liberation paper, a<BR/>horse, and his fighting equipment.<BR/><BR/>Even as a freedman, the Mamluke remained ioyal to the sultan<BR/>or emir who had trained and liberated him, to his teachers and<BR/>proctors, and to the men who had gone through training with him.<BR/>Each group of trainees tended to become a faction once within the<BR/>army. The best among them became emirs and from 1250 on,<BR/>Sultans of Egypt. In short, the men who had been trained as<BR/>manilukes became the owners and trainers of new maniluke boys<BR/>from central Asia or Circassia. The ties between master and<BR/>Mamluke were almost like a family relationship. Few sons of<BR/>Manilukes who got into the system ranked below the sultan’s and<BR/>even the emir’s Manilukes. The succession to the sultanate was<BR/>rarely hereditary. The Mamhike sultans usually rose through the<BR/>ranks of the sultan’s Mamlukes. His fellow Mamluke comrades, in<BR/>recognition of his military skill and political acumen, would<BR/>appoint one from among them as a sultan. In short, Maniluke<BR/>slavery under Muslim rulers of the Middle East was no disgrace.<BR/>On the contrary, the relationship ranked far above mere hired<BR/>service, to that of a family relationship. The Mamluke system gave<BR/>the less fortunate an opportunity to rise to the highest level in<BR/>society conforming with the Qur’anic statement that everyone is of<BR/>the same human status.<BR/><BR/>The empire of the Mamlukes, which stretched over Egypt,<BR/>Syria and the Hejaz in Arabia enjoyed not only widespread power<BR/>and prestige, but also a high degree of prosperity. The Maniluke<BR/>Empire was stronger, wealthier and more civilized than any<BR/>Western nation of that era. The bureaucratic administration was<BR/>regarded to be “the most efficient which existed in the Middle<BR/>Ages,” directed by “exceedingly capable rulers.” Manilukes were<BR/>often highly educated, as they were brought up in the school both<BR/>of war and peace. They were proficient in philosophy, divinity<BR/>and science, as well as in chivalry and arms. Thus, they were<BR/>qualified for high office and command. Many of the righteous<BR/>rulers were “of true benevolent and honourable men,” who<BR/>founded charitable, pious and literary endowments, schools and<BR/>colleges for medicine, philosophy, art and science, and orphan<BR/>homes. The hospital of Sultan Qalaoon comprised several wards<BR/>for segregating various diseases… “and was provided with<BR/>laboratories, a dispensary, baths, kitchens and store rooms. The<BR/>chief of its medical staff gave instruction in a properly equipped<BR/>lecture-room.”<BR/><BR/>While the Mamlukes reserved the military profession for<BR/>themselves and held the office of the sultanate, the Syrians and the<BR/>Egyptians formed an integral part of the various government<BR/>departments. The departments of trade, agriculture, wealth,<BR/>administration and justice, which were highly valued by the<BR/>Mamlukes, were left to the Syrians and Egyptians who could<BR/>thereby rise to high rank and great wealth. The Islamic values,<BR/>Muslim chivalry, and the incorporation of the natives within the<BR/>larger government machinery enabled the Manilukes to rule with<BR/>incredible magnificence for over 250 years.<BR/><BR/>B. The Delhi Sultanate<BR/><BR/>Contemporaneous to the Maniluke Empire, slaves of similar<BR/>Turkish background who became the loyal soldiers of the Afghan<BR/>highlanders of Ghazni and Ghor founded the Sultanate of Delhi in<BR/>India. Similar to the Mamluke and the Abbasid institutes which<BR/>recognized human dignity and offered opportunities to the sons of<BR/>the less fortunate to better themselves, the paternal care of the<BR/>ruling masters in Afghanistan saw the production of great men<BR/>from amongst their “owned” boys. The bonded men of a real<BR/>leader often proved “the equals of their master.” The Muslim<BR/>rulers found these able servants excellent advisors, gave them the<BR/>highest posts, and at times rewarded them by marriage with their<BR/>daughters.<BR/><BR/>From the heart of the Afghan mountains, Mahmud of Ghazni,<BR/>followed by Mohammad Ghori led campaigns against the<BR/>“idolaters” in India. There was no lack of volunteers to aid in the<BR/>holy war, as thousands coming from beyond the Oxus, prayed to<BR/>be granted the privilege of fighting for the faith. Loyalty of the<BR/>slaves together with their military and administrative skills earned<BR/>them positions of rulership in the conquered territories. Qutb-ud-<BR/>din Aybak, a former Turkish slave of Muhammad Ghori, was<BR/>appointed Governor of India in 1192 in recognition of his victory<BR/>over Rajput Prithvi Raj and the capture of Delhi. After Muhammad<BR/>Ghori’s death, he founded the independent kingdomlsultanate of<BR/>Delhi in 1206, becoming the first of the thirty-four Muslim kings<BR/>who ruled at Delhi from the beginning of the thirteenth century<BR/>until the invasion of Babur in 1526. Strong and energetic, a fine<BR/>rider and a good archer, well educated and of lavish generosity, he<BR/>had risen to the highest name in his master’s service. Muhammad<BR/>trusted Aybak as fully as he, himself was trusted by his elder<BR/>brother. Never did he treat him as his slave, but considered him to<BR/>be his social equal. Mohammad Bakhtiyar, a fellow marshal of<BR/>Aybak, further extended Muslim rule in Oudh, Bihar and Bengal in<BR/>the east. The successes of Muhammad Ghori were thus completed<BR/>with the energy of Aybak and Baktiyar, and all of Hindustanl<BR/>India, north of the Vmdhya range, came under Muslim rule.<BR/><BR/>The line Aybak established on an uneasy throne in India has<BR/>been given the name “Slave Kings”. Every aspect of Aybak’s<BR/>administration displayed the Islamic `virtues of courage, generosity,<BR/>tolerance, equity, brotherhood and justice, which were drilled into<BR/>him during his training period. Aybak, administered his sultanate<BR/>“in the ways of justice” and “the people were happy.” His<BR/>impartiality is extolled in the metaphorical phrase that “the wolf<BR/>and the sheep drank water out of the same pond.” The Hindus<BR/>both “high and low were treated with royal benignity”. His<BR/>munificence earned him the title Lakhbakhsh or Giver of lacs<BR/>(hundred thousand rupees).<BR/><BR/>Aybak’s reign marked the beginning of Muslim architecture in<BR/>India. The architectural monuments of Aybak speak of his<BR/>engineering feats and Islamic and Ghurid heritage. As the first<BR/>Muslim ruler in India, he built the great mosque called the Jami<BR/>Masjid, now known as the Quwwat al-Islam Mosque in Delhi.<BR/>Arches and domes were initially simulated with corbeling. Aybak<BR/>built the tallest minaret in the world (250 feet /75.8 meters), which<BR/>is known by his surname, the Qutb Minar (the Tower of Victory).<BR/>Still standing tall amidst the other Muslim architectural<BR/>monuments in Delhi, the Minar, built in 1199 with contrasting<BR/>white marble and redstone, displays jutting balconies with<BR/>alternate angular and rounded fluting, and Arabic inscriptions. The<BR/>congregational mosque at Ajmer, known as Arhai-din-ka-jhonpra<BR/>was also erected during the reign of Aybak in Delhi. The mosque,<BR/>which sits on a high plinth set halfway up one of Ajmer’s hills, had<BR/>a hypostyle hall, large and small corbeled domes and corbeled and<BR/>cusped arches, and a cusped mirab, exuberantly carved with<BR/>vegetal and epigraphic ornament in fiat relief.<BR/><BR/>Following Aybak’s accidental death while playing polo in<BR/>1210, the Muslim nobles offered the throne to Shams-ud-din<BR/>iltutmish, son-in-law of Aybak, and the most outstanding of his<BR/>slaves, who was made governor of Gwalior in 1196. He was a<BR/>member of a leading family of the Ilbaii Tribe of Turkrnans.<BR/>iltutmish is regarded to be the true founder of the dynasty of the<BR/>Slave Kings, which Aybak did not live long enough to consolidate.<BR/>He was unequalled “in beauty, virtue, intelligence, and nobleness<BR/>of character. No king so benevolent, sympathetic, reverent to the<BR/>learned and the old, ever rose by his own efforts to the cradle of<BR/>[an] empfre.” His gentleness of disposition and demeanor was in<BR/>sharp contrast to his Muslim chivalry, which completed the<BR/>submission of all India north of the Vindhyas.<BR/><BR/>The Slave Kings exemplified in schooling their daughters both<BR/>in war and peace, thus ensuring their position of respect and<BR/>prominent role in government affairs. In 1236, at the time of the<BR/>death of iltutmish, he named his daughter Raziyat-ud-din (Devoted<BR/>to the Faith) as his heir, remarking with prophetic truth that she<BR/>was a better man than any of her brothers. Raziya was a great monarch:<BR/>wise, just, generous, a benefactor to her realm, a<BR/>dispenser of equity, the protector of her people, and leader of her<BR/>armies. Raziya ruled for three (3) years but was later killed in a<BR/>battle in 1240.<BR/><BR/>Balban, a member of “The Forty” (Turkish slaves) who had<BR/>earned the title of Ulugh Khan, `Puissant lord’ in recognition of his<BR/>military genius, became king after the last of the male descendants<BR/>of iltutmish died in 1266. Throughout his forty years of power, he<BR/>never gave office to any but men of intelligence and integrity.<BR/>Slave as he was once, he came from a race of chiefs, and preserved<BR/>the dignity of a king. Balban, the slave, water-carrier, huntsman,<BR/>general, statesman, and sultan is one of the most striking figures<BR/>among many notable men in the long line of the kings of Delhi.<BR/>With the death of Balban, the benevolent mie of the Muslim slaves<BR/>belonging to the House of the Ghaznavids came to an end.<BR/><BR/>Evidently, the rule of the Muslim slaves in India was marked<BR/>with an extraordinary degree of equality, justice, generosity and<BR/>general prosperity. The greatness of the rulers was the result of<BR/>their thorough grooming in Islamic virtues in their early days as<BR/>“bonded” men or “sons” of the masters. Like the Manilukes, the<BR/>leadership of the Delhi Sultanate was based on righteousness<BR/>and meritocracy.<BR/><BR/>THE ATLANTIC SLAVE TRADE AND THE MUMINUN <BR/>FROM AFRICA AND AL-ANDALUS<BR/><BR/>In sharp contrast to the Muslim slave system, which fostered<BR/>human dignity, equality and brotherhood, the slavocracy, upon<BR/>which was based the plantation economy of the New World,<BR/>carried out “cruelties more atrocious and unnatural than any<BR/>recorded of untutored and savage barbarians.” With the advent of<BR/>the Atlantic slave trade by the Europeans, many Muslims became<BR/>victims of this institution. Muslims were brought to the New<BR/>World from West and Central Africa and Andalusian Spain, which<BR/>had completely fallen into the hands of the centrali7ing monarchy<BR/>of Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castille in 1492. Contrary<BR/>to Islamic policy of freeing the captives after war and establishing<BR/>human dignity, Christian demands for religious homogeneity led to<BR/>forceful conversion, expulsion or exile of the Muslim population<BR/>from al-Andalus. Muslims who survived the wholesale massacre<BR/>and expulsion policy were penned like sheep and reduced to<BR/>slavery. So harsh and ruthless was the royal Spanish policy against<BR/>the Moors that Muslim scholars have opined that “it would take<BR/>the combined charity of Jesus and Mohammad to make Islam<BR/>forget or forgive the terrible wrongs inflicted upon the Andalusian<BR/>Muslims.”<BR/><BR/>Moorish captives who were schooled in Atlantic navigation,<BR/>however, were granted Royal Pardon by the Spanish Crown in<BR/>recognition of their seafaring skills to accompany Columbus on his<BR/>voyages. These Moorish conquerors and discoverers formed the<BR/>free Moorish Islamic societies in the New World since the coming<BR/>of Columbus. Subsequently, with the initiation in 1503, of the<BR/>Spanish slave trade exporting Moorish captives to the Americas,<BR/>these free Moorish societies became the nucleus of the Spanish<BR/>Maroon communities.<BR/><BR/>Contemporaneous to the enslavement of Moorish captives,<BR/>millions of mu `minim (Muslim believers) from West Africa<BR/>became victims of the Atlantic slave trade. Islam had already<BR/>become the dominant religion of West Africa when Europeans<BR/>initiated the Atlantic slave trade. Areas where Islam was present<BR/>during the slave trade were Senegal, Gambia, Guinea, Sierra<BR/>Leone, Mali, Benin, Ghana, and Nigeria. The mobility of the<BR/>Muslims as traders, mara bouts (clerical teachers), ulama<BR/>(scholars), talib (students), and imams (J)rayer leaders) made them<BR/>susceptible to abduction for slavery by organized gangs,<BR/>unscrupulous traders, bandits, roaming soldiers, and occasional<BR/>kidnappers. Civil wars between Muslim and pagan rulers found<BR/>large numbers of Muslim captives being sold to the European slave<BR/>traders. There is no precise figure regarding the total number of<BR/>Africans or Muslims deported to the Americas. However, Sylviane <BR/>Diouf, with great skill and intelligent analyses of the available<BR/>empirical data, presents a hypothetical figure of 15 million<BR/>individuals deported from Africa and estimates that 50 percent of <BR/>them came from West Afiica.”~ She suggests that “an estimate of<BR/>15 to 20 percent, or between 2.25 and 3 million Muslims,” were<BR/>deported over both American continents and the Caribbean<BR/>Islands. Women constituted about 15 to 20 percent of the total<BR/>Muslim slave population.<BR/><BR/>Approximately 46 percent of the Africans forcefully brought to<BR/>North America came from regions with significant numbers of<BR/>Muslims. The French imports into their Caribbean colonies <BR/>Martinique (74 percent), Guadeloupe (56.4 percent) and French<BR/>Guiana (74 percent) - constituted a high percentage of<BR/>Senegambians and Guineans. Among the British West Indies<BR/>islands, Jamaica had 56.8 percent of her arrivals from Muslim<BR/>areas.Diouf states that “if counted as a whole, on a religious<BR/>basis rather than on an ethnic one the Muslims were probably more<BR/>numerous in the Americas than any other group among the arriving<BR/>Africans.”<BR/><BR/>A large proportion of the deported Muslims came from the<BR/>intellectual elite who were educated in Arabic, Islamic<BR/>jurisprudence and could write with great beauty and exactness the<BR/>Arabic alphabet and passages from the Holy Qur’an. They studied<BR/>at centers of learning such as Timbuktu, Jenne, Kano and Bouna.<BR/>West Indian historiography authenticates the literate and well-<BR/>disciplined background of the Muslim slaves. The biographical<BR/>notes from early Muslim slaves testify to the illustrious<BR/>background of the slaves, many of them coming from mulay (princely)<BR/> or noble families such as the Sherufa clan in Western<BR/>Sudan which claims descent from Prophet Muhammad (SAW).<BR/><BR/>Muslims condemned the Trans-Atlantic trade and rallied non-<BR/> Muslims to their cause against the European slave traders. Since<BR/>Islam forbids its followers to sell their brethren, African Muslims<BR/>did not raid their own people. They not only organized themselves<BR/>to resist the slave traders, but they also extended their protection to<BR/>the peasants against the European traders. Muslim captives were<BR/>often redeemed by their brethren by making monetary payment to<BR/>the slave captors.<BR/><BR/>Many Muslim slaves, as soon as they set their feet in the<BR/>Americas, fought unceasingly for their freedom. Jihad/resistance<BR/>in various forms became a common feature in the plantations of<BR/>the New World. A common resistance to the slave system was the<BR/>hijra/flight from servitude to establish their own ummah/communities<BR/>based on consensual leadership (shura) and Islamic<BR/>tradition and culture in inhospitable and inaccessible areas<BR/>throughout the Americas. The undaunted Muslims, apparently,<BR/>were inspired by the words of Allah, which sanction the sacredness<BR/>of life and migration from places hostile to Islam: “Live not in<BR/>places hostile to Islam, if you are able to migrate, And spacious<BR/>is God’s earth. Devotion and prayer may be shortened in times of<BR/>danger. Take every precaution for safety, but be bold and<BR/>undaunted in fight”. (Holy Qur’an 4:92-96) The prominent Islamic<BR/>features ofjihad hyra and ummah in the New World resonate the<BR/>jihad of Prophet Muhammad (SAW) against the Quraish enemies<BR/>in Makkah, his hyra to Medina and the establishment of the<BR/>Muslim ummah in that city during the early days of Islam. Samory<BR/>Rashid through careftil analyses encapsulate the ummah of the<BR/>African Muslim Maroons or commonly known as the Maroon communities <BR/>of the Americas.55 Such ummah have been identified<BR/>in Jamaica, Haiti, Brazil (known as Quilombos), Trinidad,<BR/>Suiinam, Cuba, Florida, Mexico, Colombia and Venezuela.<BR/><BR/>The earliest and perhaps the most resonant and persevering of<BR/>all the jihath of the Maroons in the New World, was the Maroon<BR/>War in Jamaica. The eighty-year jihad of the Muslim Maroons in<BR/>Jamaica, having caused heavy casualties of the “Red Coats” and<BR/>enormous monetary expenditure, ultimately compelled the British<BR/>authorities to offer peace and conclude treaties in 1739,<BR/>recognizing the Maroon territories as separate entities beyond the<BR/>jurisdiction of the British Colonial government. The Maroon<BR/>communities in Jamaica continue to exist to the present day as<BR/>autonomous territories. Cudjoe, the warrior leader of the several<BR/>Maroon communities and his Muslim brethren displayed their<BR/>power of endurance and their conspicuous worship of Allah by<BR/>their act of prostration on the occasion of the peace offer. The<BR/>adoption of a pious beginning of the Treaty - “In the Name of<BR/>God, Amerf’ or in Qur’anic term Bismillah, and the continuation of<BR/>the Islamic greeting, As-Salaamu-Alailcum as the official Council<BR/>greeting of the Moore Town Maroons even to this day, illustrate<BR/>the piety of the historical Maroon leaders of Jamaica.<BR/><BR/>The popular heroine, Grandy Nanny, whose real name was<BR/>Sarah, occupies an immortal position in the history of Jamaica and<BR/>Jamaican Maroons. The devotion and dependence of Grandy<BR/>Nanny on Allah in the struggle against plantocracy, and the<BR/>establishment of Divine Guidance, were answered by karamati<BR/>favours or miracles, which have been largely misunderstood.<BR/>Grandy Nanny, considered by the Maroons as the most illustrious<BR/>woman, never lost a battle during herjihad against the British.<BR/><BR/>Two of the greatest Maroon mujahids (fighters) in the New<BR/>World were Francois Macandal and Boukman of Haiti. Both of<BR/>them were marabouts (clerical teachers) and were educated in<BR/>Arabic and Islamic studies. Macandal, who was a warrior captive,<BR/>used his military skills to launch an assault against the white<BR/>planters in Haiti in the mid~18th century. Although he was betrayed<BR/>and burned at the stake, he is regarded as a forerunner to Toussaint<BR/>L’Ouverture, the leader of the Haitian revolution. Boukman, a<BR/>Muslim slave from Jamaica, launched the general revolt of the<BR/>slaves in 1791, which subsequently sparked the Haitian Revolution<BR/>led by Toussaint L’Ouverture abolishing slavery in Haiti in 1804.<BR/>Parallel to the Maroon communities, many Muslim slaves<BR/>submitted to the inhumane torturous life of slavery on the<BR/>plantations and accepted it as their fate - Submission to the Will of<BR/>Allah. Educated in Qur’anic studies, they believed that, “No<BR/>misfortune can happen on earth or in your souls but is recorded in<BR/>a decree before We bring it into existence: That is truly easy for<BR/>God” (Holy Qur’an 57:22). It is that all causes come from Allah<BR/>and that everything is within His control and power. Everything is<BR/>subject to His Will and nothing has a will of its own. The<BR/>acceptance of the Will of Allah is the unshakable belief in divine<BR/>decree and predestination, an essential element of irnan (faith).<BR/><BR/>Despite the oppression of the mind and soul carried out by<BR/>forceftul baptism, most became crypto-Muslims and remained<BR/>faithfhl to Islam, observing the practices privately as Sufis. Since<BR/>there is no compulsion in Islam as faith has to grow from within,<BR/>coercion and the baptismal rite encompassing the sprinkling of<BR/>water had no impact on the iman of the Muslim slaves. Slave<BR/>correspondences, accounts of contemporary officials and historians<BR/>reveal the authentic identities and faith of the so-called baptized<BR/>slaves. Research on publications such as the Islamic Educational<BR/>Theories of the nineteenth century reveal how Christians in<BR/>Antebellum America used the scholarship of Muslim slaves in the<BR/>translations of the Gospels to native African languages.<BR/><BR/>Evidently, these Muslim jurisprudents worked on the plantations<BR/>of Maryland, Georgia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Alabama and<BR/>their education, self .confidence, inteffigence, and<BR/>discipline earned them elite positions within the structure of the<BR/>slave system. The presence of Muslim families in Georgia,<BR/>Maryland and Mississippi who are descendants of African Muslim<BR/>slaves underscores the remarkable determination of the African<BR/>mu `minun (Muslim believers) slaves to preserve a distinctive<BR/>lifestyle built on Islamic faith and culture.<BR/><BR/>Many slaves saw the institution of slaveiy as against God’s<BR/>laws and humanity (to serve humanity is the best way to please<BR/>Allah) and galvanized slave support against the indignities of<BR/>slavery under the guise of Baptist preachers. They evidently were<BR/>the marabouts schooled in Islamic theology and studies and knew<BR/>the Qur’anic prescription against oppression: “Permission to fight<BR/>is given to those on whom war is made, because they are<BR/>oppressed. And surely Allah is able to assist them”(Holy Qur’an<BR/>22:3 9). Such prescriptions against injustices, inequities and<BR/>oppression inspired the Muslim slaves to organize rebellions<BR/>throughout the Americas.<BR/><BR/>Scholars in Islam in the Americas seem to suggest that<BR/>repeated slave revolts in Brazil, beginning in 1807, were led and<BR/>organized by Muslim slaves belonging to the Hausa, Fulani, Nago<BR/>and Yoruba nations of West Africa. The series of rebellions<BR/>culminated with the Bahia rebellion in 1835, which is regarded to<BR/>be “by far the most widespread, best organized, and most<BR/>devastating urban insurrection they had staged.” Although Diouf<BR/>refutes the rebellion as ajihad, the nature of the rebellion suggests<BR/>that the mujahids followed the Qur’anic commands and selected<BR/>their targets of destruction in their struggle to attain freedom,<BR/>which in Islam is a spiritual privilege, a moral prerogative, and<BR/>above all, a religious duty. According to Diouf “the supposed<BR/>white killing spree was not a reality, because the insurgents did not<BR/>kill indiscriminately.. .there is no evidence that they robbed a <BR/>single house or that they killed their masters on the siy.” Islam<BR/>does not permit Muslims to take up arms against the unarmed. It<BR/>permits one to fight only against aggressors as the Holy Qur’an<BR/>prescribes: “Fight in the way of Allah those who fight you, but be<BR/>not aggressive. Surely Allah loves not aggressors”(2:190). Diouf<BR/>rightly points out that “what the insurgent Muslims did was attack<BR/>the strategic buildings the police, the National Guard, and army<BR/>barracks where they could destroy the defenders of the<BR/>slaveholders and get much-needed arms and ammunition at the<BR/>same time.”. What is most perplexing is Dioufs characterization<BR/>of Islam as a “cult”!<BR/><BR/>Perhaps the most important Muslim slave rebellion was the<BR/>Jihad of 1831-32 in Jamaica, commonly called the Baptist<BR/>Rebellion. The rebellion was a response to the call for jihad made<BR/>through a wathiqah, a “pastoral letter” which “exhorted all of the<BR/>followers of Prophet Muhammad (SAW) to be true and faithful if<BR/>they wished to enter Paradise”. The nature and extent of the<BR/>rebellion, which lacked a central organization, speak of the role of<BR/>the so-called “baptized slaves” as marabouts, imam and ulema in<BR/>organizing an island rebellion to establish human dignity and<BR/>freedom. The mujahids held on to the Truth and persevered and<BR/>strove with constancy as they organized the rebellion while<BR/>working in bondage. Although ruthlessly crushed, the jihad<BR/>crippled the very foundation of the slave system and hastened the<BR/>Emancipation Act of 1833, leading to final emancipation of the<BR/>slaves in the entire British West Indies in 1838.<BR/><BR/>CONCLUSION<BR/><BR/>Although slavery was allowed by the Holy Qur `an in view of<BR/>social constraints, the principles of equality, brotherhood and the<BR/>freedom of the soul created grounds for its natural elimination. The<BR/> precedent set by Prophet Muhammad to emancipate slaves <BR/>(as a mandatory obligation or as a recommended action) banned most of<BR/>the causes leading to slavery with the exception of aggression<BR/>against Islam. The high ranks and positions enjoyed by the former<BR/>slaves of the Prophet (SAW) is unparalleled in world history. The<BR/>Mainluke dynasty in Egypt and the Dethi Sultanate in India<BR/>exemplify the enlightened nature of slavery in Islam. However, the<BR/>story of the Muslims who became victims of the Atlantic slave<BR/>trade in the New World, speaks of a tradition of jiliad and a<BR/>distinctive Islamic lifestyle. The mujahids believed that Allah’s<BR/>Plan is righteous, and for the good of His creatures and that none<BR/>shall live in bondage.Strangerhttps://www.blogger.com/profile/08949554634658128152noreply@blogger.com